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Oil and Gas. PET Bottle Blowing. Historical data allow developing models capable of estimating installation cost within certain limits, via:. Factor A relates to all auxiliaries and accessories required for each compressor package, such as the foundation, civil works, piping, additional steel structures, etc. Because errors due to underestimating the cost of components and services generally are larger than those due to overestimating, always include proper safety margins on A and B.
Various cost studies indicate a large difference in compressor unit cost among regions, with areas having established installation infrastructure and skilled personnel notably less costly. Studies also show that, because large compressors offer economies of scale and low unit cost, compressor installation costs decrease with increasing compressor size. In addition, the cost estimate should take into account, as appropriate, environmental conditions, the nature of the soil and terrain, cost of living, population density, noise limits, applicable codes and distance from compressor supplies.
I obtained the following costs for electric-motor-driven compressor packages:. A separator filters out liquids, solids, and other particulate matter that may be in the gas stream.
Compressor stations are an integral part of the natural gas pipeline network that moves natural gas from individual producing well sites to end users. As natural gas moves through a pipeline, distance, friction, and elevation differences slow the movement of the gas, and reduce pressure.
Compressor stations are placed strategically within the gathering and transportation pipeline network to help maintain the pressure and flow of gas to market.
Natural gas enters a compressor station through station yard piping and is passed through scrubbers and filters to extract any liquids and remove solids or other particulate matter that may be in the gas stream Figure 1. Once the natural gas stream has been cleaned, it is directed through additional yard piping to individual compressors. Computers regulate the flow and number of units that are needed to handle the scheduled system flow requirements.
Most compressor units operate in parallel, with the individual compressor units providing the needed additional pressure before directing the gas back into the pipeline with full operational pressure restored. When the required boost in pressure is very high, several compressor units may be operated in stages serially to achieve the desired pressure in stages.
As natural gas is compressed, heat is generated and must be dissipated to cool the gas stream before leaving the compressor facility. For every psi increase in pressure, the temperature of the gas stream increases by degrees. Most compressor stations have an aerial cooler system to dissipate excess heat an "after" cooler. The heat generated by the operation of the individual compressor units is dissipated via a sealed coolant system similar to an automotive radiator. In wet gas areas, or areas that produce natural gas liquids NGLs , changes in pressure and temperature cause some of the liquids to drop out.
The liquids that drop out are captured in tanks and trucked off site. The liquids captured are referred to as natural gasoline or drip gas, which is often used as a blend in motor gasoline. Most compressor stations are fueled by a portion of the natural gas flowing through the station, although in some areas of the country, all or some of the units may be electrically powered primarily for environmental or security reasons. Gas-powered compressors may be driven by either conventional piston engines or natural gas turbine units.
There are site design and operational differences, as well as unique air and sound emissions, between these competing compressor engine technologies. There may be one or more individual compressor units at a station, which can be out in the open, or more often, housed in a building to facilitate maintenance and sound management. Newer units are often housed one per building, but there may be multiple units in one large building.
Compressor buildings generally incorporate insulated walls, shielded exhaust systems, and advanced fan technology to dampen sound. Newly constructed compressor buildings may incorporate these features where local, state, or federal regulations require noise mitigation Figure 2. Figure 2. Inside compressor building. Courtesy of the Marcellus Education Team. Compressor station yards for gathering lines are often larger than transmission line compressors due to multiple pipelines coming into the complex, and in some cases, additional equipment needed to filter and remove liquids from the gas stream Figure 3.
Other components of a compressor complex include backup generators, gas metering equipment, gas filtration systems, and system monitoring and safety controls. There may also be odorization equipment to add mercaptan, which provides the distinctive sulfurous odor to natural gas. Figure 3. Compression station yard. Courtesy of Spectra Energy. Station Yard Piping 2.
Compressor Units 4. Gas Cooling System 5. Lube Oil System 6. Mufflers Exhaust Silencers 7. Fuel Gas System 8. Backup Generators. Compressor stations are either permitted and regulated at the federal or state level depending on the type of the pipeline the compressor services. It should be noted that it is the purpose, not the size of the pipe, that defines whether a pipeline is a gathering or interstate line. Gathering lines are commonly smaller diameter pipelines generally in the range of 6 to 20 inches that move natural gas from the wellhead to a natural gas processing facility or an interconnection with a larger mainline pipeline.
Gathering lines are regulated at the state level and compressor stations that are part of a gathering system are also regulated by the state. In Pennsylvania, the Department of Environmental Protection PA DEP is responsible for environmental permitting and regulation during gathering system compressor planning and construction. PA PUC regulation includes material and design specifications, on-site inspections, and review of company maintenance and safety procedures.
Natural gas within a gathering system can arrive at a compressor station at a variety of pressures depending on the pressure of the wells feeding the system and the distance gas travels from the wellhead to the compressor.
Regardless of the incoming pressure, the gas must be regulated or compressed to transmission pressures generally to 1, psi before it can enter an interstate transmission system. Because compression requirements can be significant within the gathering system, these compressor systems are generally large facilities consisting of 6 to 12 compressors in several buildings. Many of these gathering system compressor stations are scaled up in size as more wells are drilled in an area, increasing the demand for compression.
The permanent land requirements of a gathering system compressor are generally 5 to 15 acres, but they can exceed this, considering slope of land and other factors. Transmission pipelines are generally wide-diameter inches , long-distance pipelines that transport natural gas from producing areas to market areas.
These interstate pipelines carry natural gas across state boundaries--in some cases, clear across the country. The FERC review process includes an environmental review, evaluation of site alternatives, and interfacing with landowners and the public. Once federally regulated interstate compressor stations become operational, station safety is regulated, monitored, and enforced by the U.
Department of Transportation DOT. Interstate transmission lines are regulated at the federal level and compressor stations that are part of an interstate transmission system are also federally regulated. Interstate compressor facilities must generally comply with local and state regulations; however, if there is a conflict, the more stringent regulations will prevail. Natural gas within an interstate pipeline is generally already pressurized at to 1, psi.
To ensure that gas continues to flow optimally, it must be periodically compressed and pushed through the pipeline. Friction and elevation differences slow the gas and reduce the pressure, so compressor stations are placed typically 40 to 70 miles apart along the pipeline to provide a boost in pressure. Because they are only providing a boost in pressure, interstate transmission system compressors are generally smaller facilities compared to gathering system compressors.
A typical facility may consist of two compressor units one that is operational and one that serves as a backup unit within a single building. The typical permanent land requirement of an interstate compressor is 4 to 5 acres. Compressor stations incorporate a variety of safety systems and practices to protect the public and station employees in the event of an emergency.
For example, every station has an emergency shutdown system ESD connected to a control system that can detect abnormal conditions such as an unanticipated pressure drop or natural gas leakage Figure 4. These emergency systems will automatically stop the compressor units and isolate and vent compressor station gas piping sometimes referred to as a blow down.
Regulations require that compressor stations periodically test and perform maintenance on the emergency shutdown system to ensure reliability. It is advisable for landowners, neighbors, and first responders to become familiar with safety systems, testing procedures, and emergency response protocols for compressor stations in their area.
Figure 4. Emergency shutdown valve on incoming pipeline.
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